Introduction

Kaplowitz (2014) states that the goal of instructional design (ID) is to boost the effectiveness of instruction by incorporating principles from evidence-based learning theories (p. 14). Central to this approach is the continual improvement that all educators must pursue daily. Instruction, as Isman (2011) describes, ID involves a systematic approach to organizing teaching and learning activities that aim to motivate students and enhance the learning process (p. 136). As noted by Isman (2011), Gustafson conveys that ID involves steps such as analyzing content, choosing delivery methods, trialing and refining these methods, and assessing learning outcomes (p. 136).

Isman (2011) further explains that thorough planning and attention to interrelated factors are crucial in ID, as initial errors like unclear goals can cause later issues (p. 136). From my experience, the lack of specific lesson goals often undermines the effectiveness of class sessions. Instructional designers need to carefully evaluate each element of the process, ensuring an understanding of how these elements interconnect and collecting comprehensive data on students’ backgrounds and prior learning. In diverse classrooms, this data is vital for tailoring designs that meet educational objectives across different learning levels. Instructional design models serve as frameworks to help educators tackle and overcome learning challenges, judged by their success in resolving these issues effectively. Furthermore, Isman (2011) makes note of Reiser & Dick arguing that effective instruction equips students with specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes, motivating them and delivering substantial educational content. Achieving this requires adherence to four key principles: clearly defining general goals and specific objectives, planning activities to achieve these objectives, developing assessments to measure their attainment, and revising instruction based on student performance and feedback. These principles ensure that instruction is both effective and adaptable to student needs (p. 136).

When exploring instructional design (ID), it is crucial to evaluate a variety of theories that influence our understanding of how learning occurs and the role of the learner. Khalil & Elkhider (2016) highlight three primary learning theories that propose distinct approaches and strategies. Behaviorism treats learning as the acquisition of new behaviors via conditioning, positioning learners as passive receivers of knowledge. It emphasizes objective-based instruction and competency-based education, utilizing methods such as lectures and demonstrations to foster skill development. Conversely, Cognitivism views learning as the acquisition and reorganization of cognitive structures. Learners are seen as active participants who internally process and organize information. This theory stresses the importance of understanding how knowledge is acquired, employing strategies like concept mapping and problem solving to promote cognitive growth. Constructivism suggests that learning is an individual’s search for meaning, where learners actively construct knowledge through their experiences. This theory advocates for reflective practices and collaborative learning environments, encouraging learners to engage in dialogue, reflection, and problem-based learning. These theories provide a comprehensive framework for instructional design, each offering unique insights into the educational process (p. 148).

I want to highlight a few other theories. The first one I discuss reminds me of what I am enduring on this e-Portfolio.  Adult learning theory, which encompasses the concepts of andragogy and self-directed learning, focuses on the unique needs of adult learners. Andragogy, which is defined as the art and science of assisting adults in learning, emphasizes the importance of facilitating rather than merely delivering education. Self-directed learning, on the other hand, places the responsibility of learning primarily on the adult learners themselves, giving them control over their educational processes. A key aspect of adult learning theory is leveraging the learner’s existing experiences, such as their background and entry behavior, in the instructional design. Adult learners are characterized by their independence in directing their education, their wealth of life experiences, established professional and personal goals, intrinsic motivation, a focus on problem-solving, and a desire for learning that is relevant and applicable to their needs (Khalil & Elkhider, 2016, p. 148).

Khalil & Elkider (2016) discuss Cognitive Load Theory, which posits that learning is most effective when instructional conditions are well-matched with the learner’s cognitive structure, including sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. They note that while long-term memory has unlimited capacity, working memory is significantly limited in both capacity and duration, particularly when handling new information. They also explore Multimedia Theory, which derives from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and emphasizes learning through both verbal and visual information. This theory operates on three key principles: the dual-channel principle, which suggests that working memory processes verbal and visual information through two separate channels; the limited capacity principle, which indicates that working memory can only process a limited amount of information at once; and the active processing principle, which highlights that deep learning occurs when new information is actively processed and integrated with existing knowledge in long-term memory (p. 149).

ID professionals have access to a variety of design models and methodologies that provide a systematic approach to creating educational programs. According to Kaplowitz (2014, p. 20), these models begin with an analysis of the educational challenges, followed by the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of instructional strategies and materials tailored to resolve specific issues. One of the primary models discussed is ADDIE, an acronym for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Notably, the ADDIE model is focused on defining the desired outcomes for learners at the conclusion of the instructional process.  

Dick and Carey emphasize the need for a systematic approach in ID, highlighting the interaction between components such as the teacher, learner, instructional materials, and the learning environment. Their model, which outlines the process of designing effective instruction, includes several key steps: identifying instructional goals, conducting an instructional analysis, determining learner characteristics and entry behaviors, writing performance objectives, developing test items, and creating instructional strategies. Additionally, it involves selecting instructional materials, conducting formative and summative evaluations, and ensuring each component is carefully linked to maintain focus and achieve clear objectives. This detailed, step-by-step approach is particularly beneficial for novice instructional designers, offering a clear framework that complements the ADDIE model by providing greater detail on each phase (Khalil & Elkhider, 2016, p. 150). Kaplowitz (2014) highlights the last model covered in this introduction, the ASSURE model. This acronym represents the steps of analyzing learners, stating standards and objectives, selecting strategies along with technology, media, and materials, utilizing these materials, requiring learner participation, and evaluating and revising the instruction. Highlighted within this model is the emphasis on incorporating technology and media. It promotes an active learning environment where learners can engage with new knowledge and skills, apply them in practice, and receive feedback on their progress (p. 21).

Evidence

My first artifact to prove my mastery in competency K comes from my final instrucional design project in INFO 250. In this project, high school accounting students will have to engage in a comprehensive learning experience designed to enhance their research and APA citation skills. The lesson plan spans three class periods, during which students will first acquire library cards to access a range of academic databases via the St. Tammany Parish Library website. The instructional strategy includes a step-by-step guide where students start by simulating the filling out of a W-9 tax form, progressing to navigating and using the library’s digital resources. The primary objectives are for students to identify and utilize peer-reviewed sources and accurately apply APA formatting in their citations. This practical approach aims to foster independence among students, equipping them with the skills to source and cite academic literature correctly, rather than relying on easily accessible but potentially unreliable internet sources. Students will actively participate in the learning process, using technology to access online library databases and partaking in both individual and collaborative tasks. The instruction is tailored to accommodate both in-person and remote learning via Google Classroom, ensuring all students can participate effectively regardless of their physical presence in the classroom. Assessments throughout the project will include formative tasks to monitor progress and a summative evaluation where students will demonstrate their research skills through a written assignment that incorporates multiple citations to support an argument in their field of study. This project not only aims to enhance academic skills but also to prepare students for future educational and professional environments.

My second artifact to prove my mastery came from INFO 254 where I discussed a scholarly article. This article explores how librarians can effectively design class sessions and lessons to enhance students’ research skills. It examines the application of learning theories to reshape students’ perspectives on research. The study highlights two main approaches to learning, emphasizing that millennials prefer learning experiences that are active, structured, and meaningful. Lessons were tailored according to students’ previous search behaviors, incorporating theories related to the influence of prior knowledge on new learning, organizing new information, motivation in learning, and the significance of active engagement. The study utilized a flipped classroom model and problem-based learning exercises. Findings from the study, as noted by Porter (2014), indicated that there was a significant variation in students’ abilities to assess the reliability of sources during these sessions.

My final artifact also comes from INFO 254 where I give a report or reflection on my instructional video I created.  The report discusses an instructional screencast aimed at high school students on how to locate credible, peer-reviewed sources using the GALE Academic One File database through their local library. This initiative seeks to shift students away from relying on common search engines for research, encouraging more scholarly and reliable methods. The screencast is designed to be viewed as homework before an in-class active learning session. I use my interest in beekeeping to demonstrate searching the database, introducing students to both the subject of honeybees and the process of academic research. The instructional approach is rooted in constructivist theory, which emphasizes that students construct knowledge through experiences rather than passively receiving information. The paper references educational theorists like Bada & Olusegun and Honebein to underline the importance of active learning and student-centered learning environments. Furthermore, I employ flipped classroom models to maximize classroom interaction and deepen students’ engagement with the material. By using Studio on Canvas for the screencast, I provide a clear, step-by-step visual guide that not only shows how to navigate the library system but also encourages students to actively engage in their own learning process. This method aims to improve students’ research skills and their ability to critically evaluate sources, equipping them with tools necessary for academic success.

Conclusion

I aim to revisit Joan Kaplowitz’s “Designing Information Literacy Instruction” and other related materials before the end of the year. I strongly believe in the effectiveness of the theories and models discussed in these works and am committed to implementing them in future school years. However, the challenge I often face is maintaining focus and following through with a well-designed plan without losing momentum.

References

Isman, A. (2011). Instructional design in education: new model. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 10(1), 136-142.

Kaplowitz, J. R. (2014). Designing information literacy instruction: The teaching tripod approach. Rowman & Littlefield.

Khalil, M. K., & Elkhider, I. A. (2016). Applying learning theories and instructional design models for effective instruction. Advances in physiology education